a Muslim polymath active in the Ottoman Empire. He was the author of more than ninety books on a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, clocks, engineering, mathematics, mechanics, optics and natural philosophy. In 1574 the Ottoman Sultan Murad III invited Taqi ad-Din to build the Istanbul observatory. Using his exceptional knowledge in the mechanica...

a Muslim polymath active in the Ottoman Empire. He was the author of more than ninety books on a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, clocks, engineering, mathematics, mechanics, optics and natural philosophy. In 1574 the Ottoman Sultan Murad III invited Taqi ad-Din to build the Istanbul observatory. Using his exceptional knowledge in the mechanical arts, Taqi ad-Din constructed instruments like huge armillary and mechanical clocks that he used in his observations of the Great Comet of 1577. He also used European celestial and terrestrial globes that were delivered to Istanbul in gift-exchange.

an English scholar and poet, and a Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. He was involved in translations from Spanish, in particular of some of the work of Miguel de Cervantes. He made a translation, in 1622, of the Picaresque novel by Mateo Alemán, Guzm...

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an English scholar and poet, and a Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. He was involved in translations from Spanish, in particular of some of the work of Miguel de Cervantes. He made a translation, in 1622, of the Picaresque novel by Mateo Alemán, Guzmán de Alfarache, and also, in 1631, Celestina, or the Tragicomedy of Calisto and Melibea, a 300-page play, or "novel in dialogue," by Fernando de Rojas.

an Irish poet. A son of Laoiseach Mac an Bhaird, Diarmaid was a member of the Clann Mac an Bhaird and one of the last classically trained bardic file (poet). He appears to have lived in what is now County Monaghan though he clearly had associations with Clandeboye, as a poem he addressed to Cormac O Neill is preserved in Leabhar Cloinne Aodha Buidhe. He is a...

an Irish poet. A son of Laoiseach Mac an Bhaird, Diarmaid was a member of the Clann Mac an Bhaird and one of the last classically trained bardic file (poet). He appears to have lived in what is now County Monaghan though he clearly had associations with Clandeboye, as a poem he addressed to Cormac O Neill is preserved in Leabhar Cloinne Aodha Buidhe. He is also remembered for being involved in a poetic contention with Eoghan O Donnghaile of Tír Eógain as to which of them had the right to use the Red Hand of Ulster (see Flag of Ulster) as an emblem.

an early Modern Irish poet. Manuscript H.5.6, held at Trinity College, Dublin, contains a poem of 24 stanzas apparently written by Mac Con Midhe for Toirealach Ó Néill of Sliocht Airt Óig of Tyrone and his wife, Sorcha. It survives in another copy of 188 lines in MS 1291 (formerly H.1.17), also in Trinity, both been made by Hugh O'Daly in the middle 18th ...

an early Modern Irish poet. Manuscript H.5.6, held at Trinity College, Dublin, contains a poem of 24 stanzas apparently written by Mac Con Midhe for Toirealach Ó Néill of Sliocht Airt Óig of Tyrone and his wife, Sorcha. It survives in another copy of 188 lines in MS 1291 (formerly H.1.17), also in Trinity, both been made by Hugh O'Daly in the middle 18th century for a Dr. Sullivan.

an Irish poet, active in the early 18th century. Tarlach Rua Mac Dónaill was from the townland of Derrylasky in the parish of Donaghmore, County Tyrone. He was the author of Seachrán Charn tSiadhail, which became extremely popular in Gaelic Ulster. It survived in numerous oral traditions, two manuscripts, and versions run to over fifty seven verses of eigh...

an Irish poet, active in the early 18th century. Tarlach Rua Mac Dónaill was from the townland of Derrylasky in the parish of Donaghmore, County Tyrone. He was the author of Seachrán Charn tSiadhail, which became extremely popular in Gaelic Ulster. It survived in numerous oral traditions, two manuscripts, and versions run to over fifty seven verses of eight lines each. The original probably was no more than six. Seachrán Charn tSiadhail describes a young man attempting to impress a young girl with an account of all the professions he has held and all the places he has visited.

an Irish scribe, translator, historian and genealogist. He was one of the last traditionally trained Irish Gaelic scholars, and was a member of the Clan MacFhirbhisigh, a leading family of northern Connacht. His best-known work is the Leabhar na nGenealach, which was published in 2004 as The Great Book of Irish Genealogies, more than 300 years after it had b...

an Irish scribe, translator, historian and genealogist. He was one of the last traditionally trained Irish Gaelic scholars, and was a member of the Clan MacFhirbhisigh, a leading family of northern Connacht. His best-known work is the Leabhar na nGenealach, which was published in 2004 as The Great Book of Irish Genealogies, more than 300 years after it had been written.

an Irish poet and scribe. A native of Harmanstown, parish of Stackallen, County Meath, Paul Walsh (priest) described him as follows: "He cultivated Irish literature, not, however, as an original author. He is known as a diligent copier of MSS., and as a friend of Tadhg O Neachtain, the lexico-grapher. The two men were joint scribes of a MS. which Edward O Re...

an Irish poet and scribe. A native of Harmanstown, parish of Stackallen, County Meath, Paul Walsh (priest) described him as follows: "He cultivated Irish literature, not, however, as an original author. He is known as a diligent copier of MSS., and as a friend of Tadhg O Neachtain, the lexico-grapher. The two men were joint scribes of a MS. which Edward O Reilly was in possession of in 1830."

a British historian and Whig politician. He wrote extensively as an essayist and reviewer; his books on British history have been hailed as literary masterpieces. Macaulay held political office as the Secretary at War between 1839 and 1841, and the Paymaster-General between 1846 and 1848. He played a major role in introducing English and western concepts to ...

a British historian and Whig politician. He wrote extensively as an essayist and reviewer; his books on British history have been hailed as literary masterpieces. Macaulay held political office as the Secretary at War between 1839 and 1841, and the Paymaster-General between 1846 and 1848. He played a major role in introducing English and western concepts to education in India. He supported the replacement of Persian by English as the official language, the use of English as the medium of instruction in all schools, and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers.

an English composer and musicologist. His oratorios brought him some popular and critical success. Amongst his compositions of light music is a Romance and Barcarole for Concertina and Fortepiano written in 1856. His theoretical works include an analysis of Lud...

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an English composer and musicologist. His oratorios brought him some popular and critical success. Amongst his compositions of light music is a Romance and Barcarole for Concertina and Fortepiano written in 1856. His theoretical works include an analysis of Ludwig van Beethoven's Missa Solemnis (described as Beethoven's "Grand Service in D", and published in 1854).

an Italian Renaissance historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer. He has often been called the founder of modern political science. He was for many years a senior official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal corresponde...

an Italian Renaissance historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer. He has often been called the founder of modern political science. He was for many years a senior official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal correspondence is renowned in the Italian language. He was secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when the Medici were out of power. He wrote his most renowned work The Prince (Il Principe) in 1513.

an English clothier and diarist in 16th century London. Machyn's Chronicle, which was written between 1550 and 1563, is primarily concerned with public events: changes on the throne, state visits, insurrections, executions and festivities. Machyn wrote his diary during a turbulent period in England: the Reformation, initiated by more

an English clothier and diarist in 16th century London. Machyn's Chronicle, which was written between 1550 and 1563, is primarily concerned with public events: changes on the throne, state visits, insurrections, executions and festivities. Machyn wrote his diary during a turbulent period in England: the Reformation, initiated by Henry VIII and carried through by Edward VI, was followed by the return to Catholicism (and burning of heretics) under Queen Mary I of England. Judging from his enthusiastic account of the disinterment of Edward the Confessor in 1557, Machyn was apparently a Catholic himself.

a Scottish poet, journalist, author, anthologist, novelist, and songwriter, remembered mainly for his book Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. In 1828 he was placed by his father at a school in Brussels, on the Boulevard de Namur, and studied languages. In 1830 he was engaged as a private secretary to William Cockerill, the iron...

a Scottish poet, journalist, author, anthologist, novelist, and songwriter, remembered mainly for his book Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. In 1828 he was placed by his father at a school in Brussels, on the Boulevard de Namur, and studied languages. In 1830 he was engaged as a private secretary to William Cockerill, the ironmaster, near Liège, began writing in French in the Courrier Belge, and sent English poems to a local newspaper called The Telegraph.

an Irish actor and dramatist who performed extensively at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. Macklin revolutionised theatre in the 18th century by introducing a "natural style" of acting. He is also famous for killing a man in a fight over a wig at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. Born in County Donegal in Ulster in the north of Ireland, brought up in Dublin, wher...

an Irish actor and dramatist who performed extensively at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. Macklin revolutionised theatre in the 18th century by introducing a "natural style" of acting. He is also famous for killing a man in a fight over a wig at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. Born in County Donegal in Ulster in the north of Ireland, brought up in Dublin, where he attended school in Islandbridge after his father's death and his mother's remarriage, Macklin became known for his many performances in the tragedy and comedy genre of plays. He gained his greatest fame in the role of Shylock in The Merchant of Venice. Macklin enjoyed a long career which was often steeped in controversy before dying aged 106.

an Americanized Scottish geologist, cartographer and philanthropist. He is known as the 'father of American geology' and as a social experimenter on new types of community life, collaborating with British social reformer Robert Owen, (1771–1854), in Indiana, Un...

an Americanized Scottish geologist, cartographer and philanthropist. He is known as the 'father of American geology' and as a social experimenter on new types of community life, collaborating with British social reformer Robert Owen, (1771–1854), in Indiana, United States. Maclure had a highly successful mercantile career, making a fortune that allowed him to retire in 1797 at the early age of 34 to pursue his scientific, geological and other interests. In 1809 he made the earliest attempt at a geological map of the United States of America.

a Scots poet and song-writer. a Scottish poet born near Roslin, Midlothian, Scotland. Macneill had been the son of a poor army captain and went to work as a clerk in 1760 at the age of fourteen. Soon, he was sent to the West Indies and served as assistant secretary from 1780 to 1786. After he returned to Scotland, he wrote various political pamphlets, two no...

a Scots poet and song-writer. a Scottish poet born near Roslin, Midlothian, Scotland. Macneill had been the son of a poor army captain and went to work as a clerk in 1760 at the age of fourteen. Soon, he was sent to the West Indies and served as assistant secretary from 1780 to 1786. After he returned to Scotland, he wrote various political pamphlets, two novels, and several poems, The Harp (1789), The Carse of Forth, and Scotland's Skaith, the last against drunkenness, but is best known for his songs, such as My Love's in Germany (My Luve's in Germanie) My Boy Tammy, I lo'ed ne'er a Laddie but ane, and Come under my Plaidie.

a Scottish writer, poet, literary collector and politician, known as the "translator" of the Ossian cycle of poems. He was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. He went on to write several historical works, the most important of which was Original Papers, containing the Secret History of Great Britain from the Restoration to the Access...

a Scottish writer, poet, literary collector and politician, known as the "translator" of the Ossian cycle of poems. He was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. He went on to write several historical works, the most important of which was Original Papers, containing the Secret History of Great Britain from the Restoration to the Accession of the House of Hanover, to which are prefixed Extracts from the Life of James II, as written by himself (1775).

an Irish author. His works include Themistocles; The Lover of His Country, Reflections and Resolutions Proper for the Gentlemen of Ireland, and Memoirs of the Twentieth Century. Dr. Samuel Johnson wrote of him, "His was a name which Ireland ought to honour." He...

an Irish author. His works include Themistocles; The Lover of His Country, Reflections and Resolutions Proper for the Gentlemen of Ireland, and Memoirs of the Twentieth Century. Dr. Samuel Johnson wrote of him, "His was a name which Ireland ought to honour." He co-founded the Royal Dublin Society in 1731 and donated a grant to Trinity College, Dublin - the source of his nickname Premium.

a Venetian citizen ("cittadino originario") and traveller. During 1568–1573, he visited much of the Near East, then under Ottoman control, including the city of Jerusalem, where he was made a knight of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, and he was captured by the Turks during the siege of the city of Nicosia in the Cyprus War of 1570-1571, being able to free...

a Venetian citizen ("cittadino originario") and traveller. During 1568–1573, he visited much of the Near East, then under Ottoman control, including the city of Jerusalem, where he was made a knight of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, and he was captured by the Turks during the siege of the city of Nicosia in the Cyprus War of 1570-1571, being able to free himself and to get back to Venice only after the battle of Lepanto, in 1572. He compiled a short travelogue in manuscript form in 1578, known as the Codex Maggi, now kept in the Bibliothèque nationale de France.

a Swedish writer and Catholic ecclesiastic, presiding as Archbishop of Uppsala and Primate of Sweden. He is best remembered as the author of the famous Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus (History of the Northern Peoples), printed in Rome 1555, a patriotic work of folklore and history which long remained for the rest of Europe the authority on Swedish mat...

a Swedish writer and Catholic ecclesiastic, presiding as Archbishop of Uppsala and Primate of Sweden. He is best remembered as the author of the famous Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus (History of the Northern Peoples), printed in Rome 1555, a patriotic work of folklore and history which long remained for the rest of Europe the authority on Swedish matters. This text on dark winters, violent currents and beasts of the sea amazed the rest of Europe. An earlier work, Carta Marina, included a map of Northern Europe with a map of Scandinavia, which was rediscovered by Oscar Brenner in 1886 in the München state library and shown to be the most accurate depiction of its time.

the author of the Tretté de la Grammaire française, which was published in 1550. This was the first grammatical description of French. His treatise is part of a wider current spelling simplification of the research granting pronunciation. However, it could not impose, for lack of a linguistic authority in the sixteenth century. Faced with the impossibility...

the author of the Tretté de la Grammaire française, which was published in 1550. This was the first grammatical description of French. His treatise is part of a wider current spelling simplification of the research granting pronunciation. However, it could not impose, for lack of a linguistic authority in the sixteenth century. Faced with the impossibility of finding a printer to print accepting his reform program, he had to repeat his processed in the traditional spelling. It was him, also, translations of Latin and Greek classics.

the author of literary fairy tales, imaginary adventures, racy novels and romances, often published anonymously by necessity, sometimes published outside France. He appears to have become embroiled in a gay scandal in 1682, in which an aristocratic underground circle practicing le vice italien was uncovered. The supposed Confrérie italienne was even ascribe...

the author of literary fairy tales, imaginary adventures, racy novels and romances, often published anonymously by necessity, sometimes published outside France. He appears to have become embroiled in a gay scandal in 1682, in which an aristocratic underground circle practicing le vice italien was uncovered. The supposed Confrérie italienne was even ascribed a constitution with a set of rules. The chevalier de Mailly contributed a poem to the Mercure Galant December 1700, on the occasion of the departure for Spain of the duc d'Anjou as Philippe V. He declaimed his verses in the Café Procope, with the other wits of Paris.

a Lithuanian Jewish author and scholar of the Talmud and Mishnah.Maimon was born in Seirijai, Lithuania, then part of the Russian Empire. His commentaries on biblical literature, Mishnah, Talmud and Halacha were publicized from his younger years and throughout his life. He was a writer for "HaMagid" Hebrew newspaper, known by the acronym of his and his fathe...

a Lithuanian Jewish author and scholar of the Talmud and Mishnah.Maimon was born in Seirijai, Lithuania, then part of the Russian Empire. His commentaries on biblical literature, Mishnah, Talmud and Halacha were publicized from his younger years and throughout his life. He was a writer for "HaMagid" Hebrew newspaper, known by the acronym of his and his father's name - AZBRMM (Alexander Ziskind ben Rabbi Moshe Maimon).

a classical French dramatist who wrote both tragedies and comedies. He was born at Besançon, and went to Paris to study at the Collège des Grassins about 1625. In that year he produced his first piece Chryséide et Arimand. In 1634 he produced his masterpiece, Sophonisbe, which marks, in its observance of the rules, the first to be staged of the classical ...

a classical French dramatist who wrote both tragedies and comedies. He was born at Besançon, and went to Paris to study at the Collège des Grassins about 1625. In that year he produced his first piece Chryséide et Arimand. In 1634 he produced his masterpiece, Sophonisbe, which marks, in its observance of the rules, the first to be staged of the classical French tragedies. He also introduced to French drama the three classical unities of time, action and place, after a misreading of Aristotle's Poetics.

a Savoyard philosopher, writer, lawyer, and diplomat. He defended hierarchical societies and a monarchical State in the period immediately following the French Revolution. Maistre was a subject of the King of Piedmont-Sardinia, whom he served as member of the Savoy Senate (1787–1792), ambassador to Russia (1803–1817), and minister of state to the court i...

a Savoyard philosopher, writer, lawyer, and diplomat. He defended hierarchical societies and a monarchical State in the period immediately following the French Revolution. Maistre was a subject of the King of Piedmont-Sardinia, whom he served as member of the Savoy Senate (1787–1792), ambassador to Russia (1803–1817), and minister of state to the court in Turin (1817–1821).

a French Oratorian priest and rationalist philosopher. In his works, he sought to synthesize the thought of St. Augustine and Rene Descartes, in order to demonstrate the active role of God in every aspect of the world. Malebranche is best known for his doctrine...

a French Oratorian priest and rationalist philosopher. In his works, he sought to synthesize the thought of St. Augustine and Rene Descartes, in order to demonstrate the active role of God in every aspect of the world. Malebranche is best known for his doctrines of Vision in God and Occasionalism.

a French poet, critic, and translator. Malherbe exercised, or at least indicated the exercise of, a great and enduring effect upon French literature, though not exactly a wholly beneficial one. From the time of Malherbe dates the gradual development of the poetic rules of "Classicism" that would dominate until the Romantics. The critical and restraining tend...

a French poet, critic, and translator. Malherbe exercised, or at least indicated the exercise of, a great and enduring effect upon French literature, though not exactly a wholly beneficial one. From the time of Malherbe dates the gradual development of the poetic rules of "Classicism" that would dominate until the Romantics. The critical and restraining tendency of Malherbe who preached greater technical perfection, and especially greater simplicity and purity in vocabulary and versification, was a sober correction to the luxuriant importation and innovation of Pierre de Ronsard and La Pléiade, but the lines of praise by Nicolas Boileau-Despreaux beginning Enfin Malherbe vint ("Finally Malherbe arrived") are rendered only partially applicable by Boileau's ignorance of older French poetry.

a Scottish dramatist. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh, and went to London in 1723 to work as a private tutor. There he became friendly with Alexander Pope, James Thomson, and other literary figures including Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke. H...

a Scottish dramatist. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh, and went to London in 1723 to work as a private tutor. There he became friendly with Alexander Pope, James Thomson, and other literary figures including Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke. His best-known work was written in the same year: William and Margaret, adapted from a traditional ballad. In 1740, he collaborated with Thomson on a masque, Alfred, which was the vehicle for "Rule, Britannia!". His other plays and poetry (e.g. Amyntor and Theodora), popular at the time, are largely forgotten, but Bolingbroke's writings were edited and published by Mallet in 1754.

a French journalist, who took up the Royalist cause during the French Revolution. He was educated at Geneva, and through the influence of Voltaire obtained a professorship at Cassel. He soon, however, resigned this post, and going to London joined HSN Linguet in the ...

a French journalist, who took up the Royalist cause during the French Revolution. He was educated at Geneva, and through the influence of Voltaire obtained a professorship at Cassel. He soon, however, resigned this post, and going to London joined HSN Linguet in the production of his Annales politiques (1778-1780). During Linguet's imprisonment in the Bastille Mallet du Pan continued the Annales by himself (1781-1783); but Linguet resented this on his release, and Mallet du Pan changed the title of his own publication to Mémoires historiques (1783).

a French poet and one of the founding members of the Académie française in 1634. In his youth, Malleville is a member of the inner circle of Illustrious Bergers, a circle of poets and scholars Catholic ronsardiens in which he is identified for Damon. Member of the circle of Conrart and Mlle de Gournay, accustomed to the Hotel de Rambouillet, Malleville con...

a French poet and one of the founding members of the Académie française in 1634. In his youth, Malleville is a member of the inner circle of Illustrious Bergers, a circle of poets and scholars Catholic ronsardiens in which he is identified for Damon. Member of the circle of Conrart and Mlle de Gournay, accustomed to the Hotel de Rambouillet, Malleville contributed by a dozen poems, all of which were very popular at the garland of Julie. His most famous sonnet, La Belle Matineuse was composed on the occasion of a poetic joust with Vincent Car on a theme dating back to the Roman poet Catullus

an Italian patriot, poet, and writer was a notable figure in the Italian Risorgimento. He is also the author of the lyrics of Il Canto degli Italiani, the national anthem. The achievements of Mameli's very short life are concentrated in only two years, during which time he played major parts in insurrectional movements and the Risorgimento. In 1847 Mameli jo...

an Italian patriot, poet, and writer was a notable figure in the Italian Risorgimento. He is also the author of the lyrics of Il Canto degli Italiani, the national anthem. The achievements of Mameli's very short life are concentrated in only two years, during which time he played major parts in insurrectional movements and the Risorgimento. In 1847 Mameli joined the Società Entelema, a cultural movement that soon would have turned to a political movement, and here he became interested in the theories of Giuseppe Mazzini.

an English author and inventor. He designed an apparatus for saving life from shipwrecks and also the first modern form of fire extinguisher. He married in 1793 and inherited his wife's family's estates, but left her in 1801 after being shot by her lover and moved to Clifton, Bristol. There, he published several books. He also invented the Manby Mortar, late...

an English author and inventor. He designed an apparatus for saving life from shipwrecks and also the first modern form of fire extinguisher. He married in 1793 and inherited his wife's family's estates, but left her in 1801 after being shot by her lover and moved to Clifton, Bristol. There, he published several books. He also invented the Manby Mortar, later developed into the breeches buoy, that fired a thin rope from shore into the rigging of a ship in distress. A strong rope, attached to the thin one, could be pulled aboard the ship. In 1813 Manby invented the "Extincteur", the first portable pressurised fire extinguisher.

an Anglo-Dutch philosopher, political economist and satirist. Born in Rotterdam, Netherlands, he lived most of his life in England and used English for most of his published works. He became famous for The Fable of the Bees. On leaving the Erasmus school at Rotterdam he showed his ability by an Oratio scholastica de medicina (1685), and at Leiden University ...

an Anglo-Dutch philosopher, political economist and satirist. Born in Rotterdam, Netherlands, he lived most of his life in England and used English for most of his published works. He became famous for The Fable of the Bees. On leaving the Erasmus school at Rotterdam he showed his ability by an Oratio scholastica de medicina (1685), and at Leiden University in 1689 he produced the thesis De brutorum operationibus, in which he advocated the Cartesian theory of automatism among animals. In 1691 he took his medical degree, pronouncing an inaugural disputation, De chylosi vitiata. He moved to England to learn the language, and succeeded so remarkably that many refused to believe he was a foreigner.

an Irish poet. Mangan began submitting verses to Dublin publications, the first being published in 1818. From 1820 he adopted the middle name Clarence. In 1830 he began producing translations – generally free interpretations rather than strict transliterations -- from German, a language he had taught himself. Of interest are his translations of more

an Irish poet. Mangan began submitting verses to Dublin publications, the first being published in 1818. From 1820 he adopted the middle name Clarence. In 1830 he began producing translations – generally free interpretations rather than strict transliterations -- from German, a language he had taught himself. Of interest are his translations of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. From 1834 his contributions began appearing in the Dublin University Magazine. In 1840 he began producing translations from Turkish, Persian, Arabic, and Irish. He was also known for literary hoaxes; some of his "translations" are in fact works of his own, like Twenty Golden Years Ago, attributed to a certain Selber.

a Genevan physician and writer. He was an assiduous compiler of previous medical literature. He graduated as a physician at the University of Valence in 1678. Later he became the Dean of the Valence medical faculty. Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg made Manget his personal physician in 1699. Manget wrote in particular a major treatise on the bubonic pla...

a Genevan physician and writer. He was an assiduous compiler of previous medical literature. He graduated as a physician at the University of Valence in 1678. Later he became the Dean of the Valence medical faculty. Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg made Manget his personal physician in 1699. Manget wrote in particular a major treatise on the bubonic plague. He is known also for a large collection of alchemical works, the Bibliotheca Curiosa Chemica, from 1702.

an English author, playwright, and political pamphleteer. Manley's satirical attacks on the Whigs at one point resulted in payment from the then Prime Minister Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer. Her career as an author effectively began with the publication of her New Atalantis in 1709, a work that spotted present British politics on the fabulou...

an English author, playwright, and political pamphleteer. Manley's satirical attacks on the Whigs at one point resulted in payment from the then Prime Minister Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer. Her career as an author effectively began with the publication of her New Atalantis in 1709, a work that spotted present British politics on the fabulous Mediterranean Island. Manley was immediately questioned by the authorities in preparation of a libel case against her.

an American pioneer of the mid-19th century. He was first a fur hunter, a guide of Westward bound caravans, a seeker of gold and then a farmer and writer in his later years. He wrote an autobiography, first published with the title From Vermont to California, then a second edition with the title Death Valley in '49, that tells of the pioneer experience in Am...

an American pioneer of the mid-19th century. He was first a fur hunter, a guide of Westward bound caravans, a seeker of gold and then a farmer and writer in his later years. He wrote an autobiography, first published with the title From Vermont to California, then a second edition with the title Death Valley in '49, that tells of the pioneer experience in America's Far West, in particular the 1848 California Gold Rush.

a British chemist and author. Benzol, its Nature and Utility (1849) was a pamphlet. Mansfield's major work in chemistry was the Theory of Salts, completed in 1855. In September 1850 a balloon machine constructed at Paris led to his Aerial Navigation. Mansfield wrote several papers in Politics for the People, edited by Maurice and John Malcolm Forbes Ludlow, ...

a British chemist and author. Benzol, its Nature and Utility (1849) was a pamphlet. Mansfield's major work in chemistry was the Theory of Salts, completed in 1855. In September 1850 a balloon machine constructed at Paris led to his Aerial Navigation. Mansfield wrote several papers in Politics for the People, edited by Maurice and John Malcolm Forbes Ludlow, and then in the Christian Socialist. His letters from South America, published as Paraguay, Brazil and the Plate (1856) by Kingsley, contain descriptions of Paraguayan society, scenery, plant and bird life, and a scheme for the colonisation of the Gran Chaco; a sketch of the history of Paraguay formed the concluding chapter of the volume.

the grandson of Aldus Manutius and son of Paulus Manutius. He was the last member of the Manuzio family to be active in the Aldine Press that his grandfather founded At eleven a work was published under his name, Eleganze della lingua Latina e toscana. Manutius the Younger was appointed to manage the Venice press while his father, Paulus Manutius, was away ...

the grandson of Aldus Manutius and son of Paulus Manutius. He was the last member of the Manuzio family to be active in the Aldine Press that his grandfather founded At eleven a work was published under his name, Eleganze della lingua Latina e toscana. Manutius the Younger was appointed to manage the Venice press while his father, Paulus Manutius, was away in Rome. In 1572 he married Francesca Lucrezin of the Giunti Family of Florence. After his father's death in 1574, Manutius became the head of the printing establishment. In 1585 he accepted the chair of Rhetoric at Bologna, travelling to Pisa in 1587 and on to Rome in 1588. In 1590 Manutius managed the Vatican Press. On 28 October 1597 he died in Rome at 50 years of age.

a barrister of Lincoln's Inn, gamekeeper of Waltham Forest, and Justice in Eyre of the New Forest under Elizabeth I of England. He was a close relative, probably a nephew, of Sir Roger Manwood, Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer in the reign of Elizabeth. Manwood's...

a barrister of Lincoln's Inn, gamekeeper of Waltham Forest, and Justice in Eyre of the New Forest under Elizabeth I of England. He was a close relative, probably a nephew, of Sir Roger Manwood, Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer in the reign of Elizabeth. Manwood's first essay on forest law entitled A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest was circulated privately in 1592. However, although Manwood's work is considered by Blackstone to be authoritative, others have pointed out that Manwood, being himself a royal officer, had an interest in amplifying the institutions he described. It has also been pointed out that these institutions had in his time largely fallen into desuetude, and his descriptions may be partly artificial and fanciful.

an Italian poet and novelist. He is famous for the novel The Betrothed (orig. Italian: I Promessi Sposi) (1840), generally ranked among the masterpieces of world literature. The novel is also a symbol of the Italian Risorgimento, both for its patriotic message and because it was a fundamental milestone in the development of the modern, unified Italian langua...

an Italian poet and novelist. He is famous for the novel The Betrothed (orig. Italian: I Promessi Sposi) (1840), generally ranked among the masterpieces of world literature. The novel is also a symbol of the Italian Risorgimento, both for its patriotic message and because it was a fundamental milestone in the development of the modern, unified Italian language.

a French jurist and writer. Legal advocate at the Parlement of Paris, he was one of the luminaries of the bar during his times. A friend of Pierre Bayle and Henry de Boulainviller, he collaborated on the Dictionnaire Historique, and wrote the articles "Henri III", "Henri, duc de Guise", "Marguerite, reine de Navarre", etc. Bound up with the president Jean Bo...

a French jurist and writer. Legal advocate at the Parlement of Paris, he was one of the luminaries of the bar during his times. A friend of Pierre Bayle and Henry de Boulainviller, he collaborated on the Dictionnaire Historique, and wrote the articles "Henri III", "Henri, duc de Guise", "Marguerite, reine de Navarre", etc. Bound up with the president Jean Bouhier, he maintained with him an interesting correspondence, published in the Journal de Paris from 1721 to 1727. He also wrote (for the Mercure) a Critique of the panegyric of Louis de Sacy by Madame de Lambert.

a French political theorist, physician, and scientist who was a radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution. His journalism became renowned for its fierce tone, uncompromising stance towards the new leaders and institutions of the revolution, and advocacy of basic human rights for the poorest members of society, yet calling for prisoners o...

a French political theorist, physician, and scientist who was a radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution. His journalism became renowned for its fierce tone, uncompromising stance towards the new leaders and institutions of the revolution, and advocacy of basic human rights for the poorest members of society, yet calling for prisoners of the Revolution to be killed before they could be freed in the September Massacres. He was one of the most radical voices of the French Revolution.

a Cambridge-educated English cleric, schoolmaster and playwright. He is best known for being the father of Anne Hutchinson, considered the most famous (or infamous) English woman in colonial America. Marbury's most noted work, The Contract of Marriage between Wit and Wisdom was written in 1579 while he was in prison. It was a moral interlude or "wit play", f...

a Cambridge-educated English cleric, schoolmaster and playwright. He is best known for being the father of Anne Hutchinson, considered the most famous (or infamous) English woman in colonial America. Marbury's most noted work, The Contract of Marriage between Wit and Wisdom was written in 1579 while he was in prison. It was a moral interlude or "wit play", following The Play of Wyt and Science by John Redford, and an adaptation of its sequel The Marriage of Wit and Science. The play had actually been performed, being noted in 1590 as one of the "current plays of the time."

a Bohemian doctor and scientist, rector of the University of Prague, and official physician to the Holy Roman Emperors. The crater Marci on the far side of the Moon is named after him. Marci's studies covered the mechanics of colliding bodies, epilepsy, and the refraction of light, as well as other topics. Marci at some time came into possession of the Voyni...

a Bohemian doctor and scientist, rector of the University of Prague, and official physician to the Holy Roman Emperors. The crater Marci on the far side of the Moon is named after him. Marci's studies covered the mechanics of colliding bodies, epilepsy, and the refraction of light, as well as other topics. Marci at some time came into possession of the Voynich Manuscript, apparently upon the death of its former owner, the alchemist Georg Baresch.

an Italian poet who was born in Naples. He is most famous for his long epic L'Adone. The Cambridge History of Italian Literature thought him to be "one of the greatest Italian poets of all time". He is considered the founder of the school of Marinism, later called Secentismo, characterised by its use of extravagant and excessive conceits. Marino's conception...

an Italian poet who was born in Naples. He is most famous for his long epic L'Adone. The Cambridge History of Italian Literature thought him to be "one of the greatest Italian poets of all time". He is considered the founder of the school of Marinism, later called Secentismo, characterised by its use of extravagant and excessive conceits. Marino's conception of poetry, which exaggerated the artificiality of Mannerism, was based on an extensive use of antithesis and a whole range of wordplay, on lavish descriptions and a sensuous musicality of the verse, and enjoyed immense success in his time, comparable to that of Petrarch before him.

a German astronomer. He was born in Gunzenhausen, near Nuremberg, but he spent most of his life in the city of Ansbach. In 1614 Marius published his work Mundus Iovialis describing the planet Jupiter and its moons. Here he claimed to have discovered the planet's four major moons some days before more

a German astronomer. He was born in Gunzenhausen, near Nuremberg, but he spent most of his life in the city of Ansbach. In 1614 Marius published his work Mundus Iovialis describing the planet Jupiter and its moons. Here he claimed to have discovered the planet's four major moons some days before Galileo Galilei.

a French novelist and dramatist. He is considered one of the most important French playwrights of the 18th century, writing numerous comedies for the Comédie-Française and the Comédie-Italienne of Paris. His most important works are Le Triomphe de l'amour, Le Jeu de l'amour et du hasard and Les Fausses Confidences. He also published a number of essays and...

a French novelist and dramatist. He is considered one of the most important French playwrights of the 18th century, writing numerous comedies for the Comédie-Française and the Comédie-Italienne of Paris. His most important works are Le Triomphe de l'amour, Le Jeu de l'amour et du hasard and Les Fausses Confidences. He also published a number of essays and two important but unfinished novels, La Vie de Marianne and Le Paysan parvenu.

an English poet and writer. He was best known for his work The English Huswife, Containing the Inward and Outward Virtues Which Ought to Be in a Complete Woman, first published in London in 1615. He was acquainted with Latin and several modern languages, and had an exhaustive practical acquaintance with the arts of forestry and agriculture. He was a n...

an English poet and writer. He was best known for his work The English Huswife, Containing the Inward and Outward Virtues Which Ought to Be in a Complete Woman, first published in London in 1615. He was acquainted with Latin and several modern languages, and had an exhaustive practical acquaintance with the arts of forestry and agriculture. He was a noted horse-breeder, and is said to have imported the first Arabian horse to England. Markham was a voluminous writer on many subjects, but repeated himself, and sometimes reprinted books under other titles. His booksellers procured from him a declaration in 1617 that he would produce no more on certain topics.

an English writer. The best known of her books was A History of England from the First Invasion by the Romans to the End of the Reign of George III (1823), which went through numerous editions. In 1828, she published a History of France. Both these wo...

an English writer. The best known of her books was A History of England from the First Invasion by the Romans to the End of the Reign of George III (1823), which went through numerous editions. In 1828, she published a History of France. Both these works enjoyed a wide popularity in America as well as in England. The distinctive characteristic of Mrs Markham's histories was the elimination of all the "horrors" of history, and of the complications of party politics, as being unsuitable for the youthful mind; and the addition to each chapter of "Conversations" between a fictitious group consisting of teacher and pupils bearing upon the subject matter.

an English playwright, poet and translator of the Elizabethan era. Marlowe was the foremost Elizabethan tragedian of his day. He greatly influenced William Shakespeare, who was born in the same year as Marlowe and who rose to become the pre-eminent Elizabe...

an English playwright, poet and translator of the Elizabethan era. Marlowe was the foremost Elizabethan tragedian of his day. He greatly influenced William Shakespeare, who was born in the same year as Marlowe and who rose to become the pre-eminent Elizabethan playwright after Marlowe's mysterious early death. Marlowe's plays are known for the use of blank verse and their overreaching protagonists.

a French author born in Pontarlier, in Doubs. He had a passion for travelling, and this he combined throughout his life with the production of literature. After journeying in Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands, he was attached in 1835 to the Arctic expedition of the Recherche; and after a couple of years at Rennes as professor of foreign literature, he...

a French author born in Pontarlier, in Doubs. He had a passion for travelling, and this he combined throughout his life with the production of literature. After journeying in Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands, he was attached in 1835 to the Arctic expedition of the Recherche; and after a couple of years at Rennes as professor of foreign literature, he visited (1842) Russia, (1845) Syria, (1846) Algeria, (1848–1849) North America and South America, and numerous volumes from his pen were the result.

a French historian and writer, a member of the Encyclopediste movement. He was appointed historiographer of France (1771), secretary to the Academy (1783), and professor of history in the Lycée (1786). As a historiographer, Marmontel wrote a history of the regency (1788). Reduced to poverty by the French Revolution, Marmontel retired during the Reign of Ter...

a French historian and writer, a member of the Encyclopediste movement. He was appointed historiographer of France (1771), secretary to the Academy (1783), and professor of history in the Lycée (1786). As a historiographer, Marmontel wrote a history of the regency (1788). Reduced to poverty by the French Revolution, Marmontel retired during the Reign of Terror to Evreux, and soon afterwards to a cottage at Abloville (near Saint-Aubin-sur-Gaillon) in the département of Eure. There he wrote Memoires d'un père (4 vols., 1804), including a picturesque review of his life, a literary history of two important reigns, and a great gallery of portraits extending from the venerable Jean Baptiste Massillon

a French poet of the Renaissance period. As early as 1514, before the accession of King Francis I, Clément presented to him his Judgment of Minos, and shortly afterward he was either styled or styled himself facteur (poet) de la reine to Queen Claude. In 1519 he was attached to the suite of Marguerite d'Alençon, the king's sister, (later to become Margueri...

a French poet of the Renaissance period. As early as 1514, before the accession of King Francis I, Clément presented to him his Judgment of Minos, and shortly afterward he was either styled or styled himself facteur (poet) de la reine to Queen Claude. In 1519 he was attached to the suite of Marguerite d'Alençon, the king's sister, (later to become Marguerite de Navarre), a great patron of the arts. He was also a great favourite of Francis himself, attended the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, and duly celebrated it in verse. In the next year he was at the camp in Flanders, and wrote of the horrors of war.

an English poet and Anglican clergyman. He studied at Wadham College, Oxford, and on graduating became a Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. He was a curate at Nuneham, and then bought a chapel in Hampstead. He became Residentiary Canon at Southwell. He was vicar of Sandon, Hertfordshire and then Aylesford, Kent. He was Bampton Lecturer in 1848. While he had co...

an English poet and Anglican clergyman. He studied at Wadham College, Oxford, and on graduating became a Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. He was a curate at Nuneham, and then bought a chapel in Hampstead. He became Residentiary Canon at Southwell. He was vicar of Sandon, Hertfordshire and then Aylesford, Kent. He was Bampton Lecturer in 1848. While he had connections to non-conformist family members, Edward's beliefs followed that of low church evangelical Anglicanism.

an American diplomat and philologist, is considered by some to be America's first environmentalist and the precursor to the sustainability concept, although "conservationist" would be more accurate. Marsh was an able linguist, able to both speak and write fluently in Swedish and half a dozen other European languages. He was a remarkable philologist for his d...

an American diplomat and philologist, is considered by some to be America's first environmentalist and the precursor to the sustainability concept, although "conservationist" would be more accurate. Marsh was an able linguist, able to both speak and write fluently in Swedish and half a dozen other European languages. He was a remarkable philologist for his day, and a scholar of great breadth, knowing much of military science, engraving and physics, as well as Icelandic, which was his specialty. He wrote many articles for Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia, and contributed many reviews and letters to The Nation.

an English Roman Catholic priest. He was one of the six companions associated with William Allen in the foundation of the English College at Douai, in 1568. It was during his time at Leuven that Marshall brought out the two major works for which he is known. The first of these, Treatise of the Cross (Antwerp, 1564), was a defence of the honour paid by Cathol...

an English Roman Catholic priest. He was one of the six companions associated with William Allen in the foundation of the English College at Douai, in 1568. It was during his time at Leuven that Marshall brought out the two major works for which he is known. The first of these, Treatise of the Cross (Antwerp, 1564), was a defence of the honour paid by Catholics to the Cross, and he dedicated it to Queen Elizabeth, being "emboldened upon her keeping the image of a crucifix in her chapel". He was attacked by James Calfhill, the Calvinist, and brought forth his Reply (Louvain, 1566). He also wrote a treatise on the Tonsure of Clerks, left in manuscript.

an English antiquary known as a writer on chronology. He was also a chancery clerk and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1660 to 1661. Marsham had a reputation in his day for his knowledge of history, chronology, and languages. According to Henry Wotto...

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an English antiquary known as a writer on chronology. He was also a chancery clerk and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1660 to 1661. Marsham had a reputation in his day for his knowledge of history, chronology, and languages. According to Henry Wotton, Marsham was the first who made Egyptian antiquities intelligible. Arthur Hallam also commended his work. He wrote Diatriba Chronologica, London, 1649, a dissertation in which he examined difficulties in the chronology of the Old Testament. Most of it was afterwards inserted in his more elaborate Chronicus Canon Ægypticus, Ebraicus, Græcus, et disquisitiones, London, 1672, a beautifully printed book.

an Italian scholar and eminent natural scientist, who also served as an emissary and soldier. A list of his works, over twenty in number, is given in Niceron's Mémoirs. His principal works are the following: Osservazioni interne al Bosforo Tracio (Rome, 1681); Histoire physique de la mer, translated by Leclerc (Amsterdam, 1725); Danubius Pannonico-Mysicus, ...

an Italian scholar and eminent natural scientist, who also served as an emissary and soldier. A list of his works, over twenty in number, is given in Niceron's Mémoirs. His principal works are the following: Osservazioni interne al Bosforo Tracio (Rome, 1681); Histoire physique de la mer, translated by Leclerc (Amsterdam, 1725); Danubius Pannonico-Mysicus, richly illustrated work in six volumes containing much valuable historic and scientific information on the river Danubius, (6 vols., The Hague, 1726); and L'Etat militaire de l'empire ottoman (Amsterdam, 1732).

an English poet, playwright and satirist during the late Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. His career as a writer lasted a decade, and his work is remembered for its energetic and often obscure style, its contributions to the development of a distinctively Jacobean style in poetry, and its idiosyncratic vocabulary. Marston's brief career in literature began ...

an English poet, playwright and satirist during the late Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. His career as a writer lasted a decade, and his work is remembered for its energetic and often obscure style, its contributions to the development of a distinctively Jacobean style in poetry, and its idiosyncratic vocabulary. Marston's brief career in literature began with a foray into the then-fashionable genres of erotic epyllion and satire. In 1609, he became a reader at the Bodleian library at Oxford, was made a deacon on 24 September and a priest on 24 December 1609.

a lexicographer who compiled one of the early English dictionaries, the Lingua Britannica Reformata (1749). He also was a lecturer on science and maker of scientific instruments. In 1740, he moved to Fleet Street, near the Royal Society where his hero Newton would often lecture. He began manufacturing Hadley's quadrant (a predecessor to the sextant) and opti...

a lexicographer who compiled one of the early English dictionaries, the Lingua Britannica Reformata (1749). He also was a lecturer on science and maker of scientific instruments. In 1740, he moved to Fleet Street, near the Royal Society where his hero Newton would often lecture. He began manufacturing Hadley's quadrant (a predecessor to the sextant) and optical instruments. His business prospered, and he also became known as a spectacle maker. He continued to lecture on natural philosophy, and from 1755 to 1764, he also published Martin's magazine.

a Spanish Jesuit theologian. He taught philosophy at Monforte, theology at Salamanca, and was called from there to the Imperial College of Madrid, where, by royal decree, he taught moral theology. Later he was named censor to the Spanish Inquisition and confessor of Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, the favorite of Philip IV of Spain, whom he follow...

a Spanish Jesuit theologian. He taught philosophy at Monforte, theology at Salamanca, and was called from there to the Imperial College of Madrid, where, by royal decree, he taught moral theology. Later he was named censor to the Spanish Inquisition and confessor of Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, the favorite of Philip IV of Spain, whom he followed when he was exiled from Madrid. Southwell describes his character by saying that he was a good religious, noted for his innocence.

a Hungarian scholar, philosopher, writer, secret agent, Freemason and a leader of the Hungarian Jacobin movement. He was condemned to death for high treason and beheaded on 20 May 1795, along with count Jakab Sigray, Ferenc Szentmarjay, József Hajnóczy and others. From 1783 he was a teacher in natural sciences at the University of Lemberg. During his acade...

a Hungarian scholar, philosopher, writer, secret agent, Freemason and a leader of the Hungarian Jacobin movement. He was condemned to death for high treason and beheaded on 20 May 1795, along with count Jakab Sigray, Ferenc Szentmarjay, József Hajnóczy and others. From 1783 he was a teacher in natural sciences at the University of Lemberg. During his academic career in Lemberg he joined to the Austrian secret agency, where his talents were recognized. During that time, he had to travel a lot, he accomplished many missions at home and abroad.

an English metaphysical poet, satirist and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1659 and 1678. During the Commonwealth period he was a colleague and friend of John Milton. His poems range from the love-song "To His Coy Mistress", to...

an English metaphysical poet, satirist and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1659 and 1678. During the Commonwealth period he was a colleague and friend of John Milton. His poems range from the love-song "To His Coy Mistress", to evocations of an aristocratic country house and garden in "Upon Appleton House" and "The Garden", the political address "An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland", and the later personal and political satires "Flecknoe" and "The Character of Holland".

a philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Born in Prussia to a middle-class family, he later studied political economy and Hegelian philosophy. As an adult, Marx became stateless and spent much of his life in London, England, where he continued to develop his thought in collaboration with German thinker Friedrich Engels ...

a philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Born in Prussia to a middle-class family, he later studied political economy and Hegelian philosophy. As an adult, Marx became stateless and spent much of his life in London, England, where he continued to develop his thought in collaboration with German thinker Friedrich Engels and published various works, the most well-known being the 1848 pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. His work has since influenced subsequent intellectual, economic, and political history.

an English author and dramatist. She was born at Alresford in Hampshire. She is best known for Our Village, a series of sketches of village scenes and vividly drawn characters based upon life in Three Mile Cross, a hamlet in the parish of Shinfield, near Reading in Berkshire, where she lived. Mitford was an especially prolific and successful writer in a rang...

an English author and dramatist. She was born at Alresford in Hampshire. She is best known for Our Village, a series of sketches of village scenes and vividly drawn characters based upon life in Three Mile Cross, a hamlet in the parish of Shinfield, near Reading in Berkshire, where she lived. Mitford was an especially prolific and successful writer in a range of genres, from poetry to drama as well as the prose for which she has been best known. Her writings have been celebrated for their spontaneous humour, combined with quick wit and literary skill.

an English author and translator. His family was from Plumstead, Kent, and he became clerk of the kitchen in the household of Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury. Mascall died at Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, and was buried there on 10 May 1589. The clai...

an English author and translator. His family was from Plumstead, Kent, and he became clerk of the kitchen in the household of Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury. Mascall died at Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, and was buried there on 10 May 1589. The claims that he introduced carp and the pippin apple to England were doubted: carp were introduced earlier, and the Maschall who introduced the pippin at Plumstead (which may have been a printing error), as Thomas Fuller says, is more plausibly an ancestor.

an English churchman, archdeacon of Norfolk and author of Of the Consecration of the Bishops in the Church of England (1613), a defence of the Church of England and the first serious rebuttal of the Nag's Head Fable put about as denigration of Matthew Parker and Anglican orders. Mason is known for on vigorous defence of the authority of the church of England...

an English churchman, archdeacon of Norfolk and author of Of the Consecration of the Bishops in the Church of England (1613), a defence of the Church of England and the first serious rebuttal of the Nag's Head Fable put about as denigration of Matthew Parker and Anglican orders. Mason is known for on vigorous defence of the authority of the church of England, which earned him the title of 'Vindex Ecclesiae Anglicanae.' In 1613, with the encouragement of Abbot, he published his book, Of the Consecration of the Bishops in the Church of England, in which he introduced extracts from the records preserved at Lambeth Palace, with a view to proving the validity of the consecration of the Protestant bishops, and especially that of Matthew Parker.

a Virginia planter and politician, and a delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention of 1787, one of three delegates who refused to sign the constitution. His writings have been a significant influence on political thought and events, including substantial portions of the Fairfax Resolves of 1774, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776, and his Obj...

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a Virginia planter and politician, and a delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention of 1787, one of three delegates who refused to sign the constitution. His writings have been a significant influence on political thought and events, including substantial portions of the Fairfax Resolves of 1774, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776, and his Objections to this Constitution of Government (1787) in opposition to ratification of the constitution. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, which Mason principally authored, served as a basis for the United States Bill of Rights, of which he has been deemed the father.

an English poet, editor and gardener. In 1747 his poem "Musaeus, a Monody on the Death of Mr. Pope" was published to acclaim and quickly went through several editions. Among his other works are the historical tragedies Elfrida (1752) and Caractacus (1759) (both used in translation as libretti for 18th century operas: Elfrida - Paisiello and LeMoyne, Caractac...

an English poet, editor and gardener. In 1747 his poem "Musaeus, a Monody on the Death of Mr. Pope" was published to acclaim and quickly went through several editions. Among his other works are the historical tragedies Elfrida (1752) and Caractacus (1759) (both used in translation as libretti for 18th century operas: Elfrida - Paisiello and LeMoyne, Caractacus - Antonio Sacchini (as Arvire et Évélina) and a long poem on gardening, The English Garden (three volumes, 1772–82).

San Francisco's first entertainer, Stephen C. Massett, was the true Bohemian type. He was an artist, with an equal capacity for work and diversion, whose ruling principle was, "If your pocket is light make your heart light to match it; if your coat is torn, laugh while you you patch it." Massett was a "red-faced little Englishman" with a wealth of copper-col...

San Francisco's first entertainer, Stephen C. Massett, was the true Bohemian type. He was an artist, with an equal capacity for work and diversion, whose ruling principle was, "If your pocket is light make your heart light to match it; if your coat is torn, laugh while you you patch it." Massett was a "red-faced little Englishman" with a wealth of copper-colored curls, a heavy mustache and goatee, a face full and mobile, with the nose of the philosopher and the eyes of the dreamer. He was poet-actor, song and dance artist, composer, essayist, lawyer, auctioneer, notary public, and "wandering minstrel in many lands." He was best known to San Francisco as "Jeems Pipes of Pipesville," his nom de plume as a writer of humorous prose.

a French chef who served as chef de cuisine (officier de bouche) to various illustrious personages, including Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, the brother of Louis XIV, and his son Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was first duc de Chartres then the Regent, as well a...

a French chef who served as chef de cuisine (officier de bouche) to various illustrious personages, including Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, the brother of Louis XIV, and his son Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was first duc de Chartres then the Regent, as well as the duc d'Aumont, the Cardinal d’Estrées, and the marquis de Louvois. His Nouveau cuisinier royal et bourgeois first appeared, anonymously, as a single volume in 1691, and was expanded to two (1712) then three volumes, in the revised edition of 1733-34. His lesser cookbook, Nouvelle instruction pour les confitures, les liqueurs et les fruits, (Paris, Charles de Sercy), appeared, also anonymously, in 1692.

an English dramatist. His finely plotted plays, including A New Way to Pay Old Debts, The City Madam and The Roman Actor, are noted for their satire and realism, and their political and social themes. The supposition that Massinger was a Roman Catholic rests upon three of his plays, The Virgin Martyr (licensed 1620), The Renega...

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an English dramatist. His finely plotted plays, including A New Way to Pay Old Debts, The City Madam and The Roman Actor, are noted for their satire and realism, and their political and social themes. The supposition that Massinger was a Roman Catholic rests upon three of his plays, The Virgin Martyr (licensed 1620), The Renegado (licensed 1624) and The Maid of Honour (c. 1621).

an English poet and divine. He also assisted Edward Herbert, Baron Herbert of Cherbury, in his writing of the Life of Henry VIII. He was educated at Cirencester Grammar School and Winchester College. There he obtained a scholarship to New College, Oxford, where he ...

an English poet and divine. He also assisted Edward Herbert, Baron Herbert of Cherbury, in his writing of the Life of Henry VIII. He was educated at Cirencester Grammar School and Winchester College. There he obtained a scholarship to New College, Oxford, where he became a perpetual fellow in 1624, and graduated B. A. in 1625, M.A. 1629, and B.D. in 1640/1. After 1629, he was ordained and in 1637 became rector of Wykeham, LincolnshireHe translated Herbert's work into Latin.

a Danish actor and playwright. She belonged to the first pioneer-troupe of actors at the Royal Danish Theatre, and later became one of the first female playwrights to have her plays performed there. She joined the theatre in 1748 when it advertised for female actors, which were in short supply for the newly opened national stage in Copenhagen. It was unusua...

a Danish actor and playwright. She belonged to the first pioneer-troupe of actors at the Royal Danish Theatre, and later became one of the first female playwrights to have her plays performed there. She joined the theatre in 1748 when it advertised for female actors, which were in short supply for the newly opened national stage in Copenhagen. It was unusual, and considered a great shame, for a member of nobility to perform on stage, and she took the stage name Materna to hide her identity.

a socially and politically influential New England Puritan minister, prolific author, and pamphleteer. Known for his vigorous support for the Salem witch trials, he also left a scientific legacy due to his hybridization experiments and his promotion of inoculation for disease prevention. He was subsequently denied the Presidency of Harvard College which his ...

a socially and politically influential New England Puritan minister, prolific author, and pamphleteer. Known for his vigorous support for the Salem witch trials, he also left a scientific legacy due to his hybridization experiments and his promotion of inoculation for disease prevention. He was subsequently denied the Presidency of Harvard College which his father, Increase, had held.

the most famous poet of the Edo period in Japan. During his lifetime, Bash? was recognized for his works in the collaborative haikai no renga form; today, after centuries of commentary, he is recognized as the greatest master of haiku (then called hokku). Matsuo Bash?'s poetry is internationally renowned; and, in Japan, many of his poems are reproduced on mo...

the most famous poet of the Edo period in Japan. During his lifetime, Bash? was recognized for his works in the collaborative haikai no renga form; today, after centuries of commentary, he is recognized as the greatest master of haiku (then called hokku). Matsuo Bash?'s poetry is internationally renowned; and, in Japan, many of his poems are reproduced on monuments and traditional sites.

a German composer, singer, writer, lexicographer, diplomat and music theorist. Mattheson is mainly famous as a music theorist. He was the most abundant writer on performance practice, theatrical style, and harmony of the German Baroque. He is particularly important for his work on the relationship of the disciplines of rhetoric and music. The bulk of his com...

a German composer, singer, writer, lexicographer, diplomat and music theorist. Mattheson is mainly famous as a music theorist. He was the most abundant writer on performance practice, theatrical style, and harmony of the German Baroque. He is particularly important for his work on the relationship of the disciplines of rhetoric and music. The bulk of his compositional output was vocal, including eight operas, and numerous oratorios and cantatas. He also wrote a few sonatas and some keyboard music, including pieces meant for keyboard instruction.

an Irish Protestant clergyman (ordained in the Church of Ireland) and a writer of Gothic plays and novels. His best known work is the novel Melmoth the Wanderer. His first three works were Gothic novels published under the pseudonym Dennis Jasper Murphy and were critical and commercial failures. They did, however, catch the attention of Sir more

an Irish Protestant clergyman (ordained in the Church of Ireland) and a writer of Gothic plays and novels. His best known work is the novel Melmoth the Wanderer. His first three works were Gothic novels published under the pseudonym Dennis Jasper Murphy and were critical and commercial failures. They did, however, catch the attention of Sir Walter Scott, who recommended Maturin's work to Lord George Gordon Byron. With their help, Maturin's play, Bertram was staged in 1816 at the Drury Lane for 22 nights, with Edmund Kean starring in the lead role as Bertram.

a French obstetrician. Born in Paris, he received his training in obstetrics at the Hôtel-Dieu. He was a leading obstetrician in 17th-century Europe — in 1668 he published, Traité des Maladies des Femmes Grosses et Accouchées, a book that helped establish obstetrics as a science. It was eventually translated into several languages. He is also kno...

a French obstetrician. Born in Paris, he received his training in obstetrics at the Hôtel-Dieu. He was a leading obstetrician in 17th-century Europe — in 1668 he published, Traité des Maladies des Femmes Grosses et Accouchées, a book that helped establish obstetrics as a science. It was eventually translated into several languages. He is also known for development of a classical maneuvre of assisted breech delivery (Mauriceau-Levret manipulation). He gave a description of tubal pregnancy, and with German midwife Justine Siegemundin 1650–1705), he is credited for introducing the practice of puncturing the amniotic sac to arrest bleeding in placenta praevia.

a French scholar and physician, important because his ideas about the interpretation of dreams and the effect of external stimuli on dreams pre-dated those of Sigmund Freud. He is mentioned by Freud in The Interpretation of Dreams, and by Sebastian Faulks in Human Traces. He coined the term hypnagogic hallucination and reported a dream that famously inspired...

a French scholar and physician, important because his ideas about the interpretation of dreams and the effect of external stimuli on dreams pre-dated those of Sigmund Freud. He is mentioned by Freud in The Interpretation of Dreams, and by Sebastian Faulks in Human Traces. He coined the term hypnagogic hallucination and reported a dream that famously inspired Salvador Dalí's painting Dream Caused by the Flight of a Bee Around a Pomegranate a Second Before Awakening.

the Dean of Windsor. He was educated on the foundation at Westminster School, whence he was elected to Trinity College, Cambridge, on 18 April 1578, and graduated B.A. in 1581, M.A. in 1585, B.D. in 1594, and D.D. in 1608, but he failed to obtain a fellowship at Trinity. James I, out of admiration for his florid pulpit eloquence and dislike of tobacco, made...

the Dean of Windsor. He was educated on the foundation at Westminster School, whence he was elected to Trinity College, Cambridge, on 18 April 1578, and graduated B.A. in 1581, M.A. in 1585, B.D. in 1594, and D.D. in 1608, but he failed to obtain a fellowship at Trinity. James I, out of admiration for his florid pulpit eloquence and dislike of tobacco, made him his chaplain, and on 21 June 1612 appointed him dean of Windsor and registrar of the order of the Garter. Maxey published three sermons preached before the king, with the title The Churches Sleepe and The Golden Chaine of Mans Saluation, and the fearefull point of hardening, 3 pts. London, 1606; 3rd edit. 1607. Other editions, with additional sermons, were issued in 1610, 1614, 1619, and 1634.

an English professional chef who trained in France and worked in England. He is best known for writing and publishing the 1660 cookbook The Accomplisht Cook. It was the first major book of English recipes, and contains instructions for many soups and broths, as well as recipes for both sweet and savoury pies. At age ten, May was sent to Paris by Lady ...

an English professional chef who trained in France and worked in England. He is best known for writing and publishing the 1660 cookbook The Accomplisht Cook. It was the first major book of English recipes, and contains instructions for many soups and broths, as well as recipes for both sweet and savoury pies. At age ten, May was sent to Paris by Lady Dormer—where he trained for five years to become a chef. Following his training, he served his apprenticeship in London, working for Arthur Hollinsworth (cook to the Grocer's Hall and Star Chamber).

an English poet, dramatist and historian of the Renaissance era. May was born in Mayfield, Sussex, the son of Sir Thomas May, a minor courtier. He matriculated at Sidney Sussex, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1613. He wrote his first published poem while at Cambridge, an untitled three-stanza contribution to the University's memorial collection of poems on th...

an English poet, dramatist and historian of the Renaissance era. May was born in Mayfield, Sussex, the son of Sir Thomas May, a minor courtier. He matriculated at Sidney Sussex, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1613. He wrote his first published poem while at Cambridge, an untitled three-stanza contribution to the University's memorial collection of poems on the death of Henry Prince of Wales in 1612. Although the majority of this volume's poems are in Latin, May's (along with a few others) is in English. It uses the trope of Pythagorean transmigration, which he re-employs in later works.

a Russian writer and literary critic, son of painter Nikolay Maykov, brother of poet Apollon and novelist Vladimir Maykov. Valerian Maykov, once a Petrashevsky Circle associate, was considered by contemporaries as heir to Vissarion Belinsky's position of Russia's leading critic, and later credited for being arguably the first in Russia to introduce scientifi...

a Russian writer and literary critic, son of painter Nikolay Maykov, brother of poet Apollon and novelist Vladimir Maykov. Valerian Maykov, once a Petrashevsky Circle associate, was considered by contemporaries as heir to Vissarion Belinsky's position of Russia's leading critic, and later credited for being arguably the first in Russia to introduce scientific approach to the art of literary criticism.

a French poet who spent much of his life in Toulouse. In 1634 he accompanied the Cardinal de Noailles to Rome and spent about two years in Italy. On his return to France he made many unsuccessful efforts to obtain the favor of Cardinal Richelieu, but was obliged to...

a French poet who spent much of his life in Toulouse. In 1634 he accompanied the Cardinal de Noailles to Rome and spent about two years in Italy. On his return to France he made many unsuccessful efforts to obtain the favor of Cardinal Richelieu, but was obliged to retire to Toulouse. He never ceased to lament his exile from Paris and his inability to be present at the meetings of the Académie française, of which he was one of the earliest members. The best of his poems is in imitation of Horace, "Alcippe, reviens dans nos bois". He died at Toulouse in 1646.

an Italian writer, bibliographer and historian. He began with numerous scholarly and accurate biographies of ancient and more modern authors, e.g., Archimedes, Pietro Aretino, Lodovico Adimari, Alamanni Luigi, Matteo and Filippo Villani). From this experience, he conceived an ambitious plan to collect biographies of all the writers of Italy from the earliest...

an Italian writer, bibliographer and historian. He began with numerous scholarly and accurate biographies of ancient and more modern authors, e.g., Archimedes, Pietro Aretino, Lodovico Adimari, Alamanni Luigi, Matteo and Filippo Villani). From this experience, he conceived an ambitious plan to collect biographies of all the writers of Italy from the earliest times, including the history of their works. In this endeavor, he relied on the Queriniana library in Brescia, donated by the Cardinal Angelo Maria Quirini, and his extensive correspondence with the scholars of Italy and Europe. He began to compile a dictionary of great writers of Italy, but the work remained unfinished because of his untimely death.

one of the most renowned of Scottish Gaelic poets and formed an integral part of one of the golden ages of Gaelic poetry in Scotland during the 18th century. He is best known for his poem about Beinn Dorain; "Moladh Beinn Dòbhrain" (English: "Praise of Ben Doran"). Duncan Ban's native region had no school and he remained illiterate throughout his life and k...

one of the most renowned of Scottish Gaelic poets and formed an integral part of one of the golden ages of Gaelic poetry in Scotland during the 18th century. He is best known for his poem about Beinn Dorain; "Moladh Beinn Dòbhrain" (English: "Praise of Ben Doran"). Duncan Ban's native region had no school and he remained illiterate throughout his life and kept his work by memory. He had to receive help from the minister of Lismore, Donald MacNicol, with transcriptions.

a Scottish born Canadian poet, who was active in the mid nineteenth century and wrote in both Scottish dialect and poetic convention of the homesickness of Scottish immigrants to Canada. Both his contemporary and later critics have called him “the Canadian Robert B...

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a Scottish born Canadian poet, who was active in the mid nineteenth century and wrote in both Scottish dialect and poetic convention of the homesickness of Scottish immigrants to Canada. Both his contemporary and later critics have called him “the Canadian Robert Burns”, an earlier Scottish national poet who also authored Scottish traditional verse. McLachlan’s bound verse includes the titles The Spirit of Love (1846), Lyrics (1858)

an eighteenth-century midwife and author. Mears was a midwife, mother, and author in London, England. Her work, Pupil of Nature, was published in 1797. It consists of 10 essays about topics from the state of the womb before and after conception, to the effect of music on nerves. She depicted the pregnant woman as a cluster of symptoms to be managed, particul...

an eighteenth-century midwife and author. Mears was a midwife, mother, and author in London, England. Her work, Pupil of Nature, was published in 1797. It consists of 10 essays about topics from the state of the womb before and after conception, to the effect of music on nerves. She depicted the pregnant woman as a cluster of symptoms to be managed, particularly with regard to her psychological state. Mears subscribed to the common notion that "irritability" of the pregnant woman’s uterus induced a heightened "sensibility".

an English engraver and publisher who compiled guides to railway travel in Great Britain in the mid-19th century. In later life he became involved in charitable works, and was knighted in 1891. In 1842 he married Sarah née Hillman. During the 1840 he developed his skills as an engraver and in 1849 published The Bible: its Elevating Influence on Man, a moral...

an English engraver and publisher who compiled guides to railway travel in Great Britain in the mid-19th century. In later life he became involved in charitable works, and was knighted in 1891. In 1842 he married Sarah née Hillman. During the 1840 he developed his skills as an engraver and in 1849 published The Bible: its Elevating Influence on Man, a moral tale in illustrated form. From the 1850s onwards much of Measom's work related to descriptions of railways; first railway work was the 1852 Illustrated Guide to the Great Western Railway. His railway works described the railways from the practical standpoint of a traveller, and all publications after the first took a title of the form "The Official Illustrated Guide to...".

an English scholar with a wide range of interests. He was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he became a Fellow from 1613. He is now remembered as a biblical scholar. He was also a naturalist and Egyptologist. He was a Hebraist, and became Lecturer of Greek. His Clavis Apocalyptica (1627 in Latin, English translation 1643, Key of the Revelation S...

an English scholar with a wide range of interests. He was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he became a Fellow from 1613. He is now remembered as a biblical scholar. He was also a naturalist and Egyptologist. He was a Hebraist, and became Lecturer of Greek. His Clavis Apocalyptica (1627 in Latin, English translation 1643, Key of the Revelation Searched and Demonstrated) was a widely influential work on the interpretation of the Book of Revelation. It projected the end of the world by 1716: possibly in 1654.

the first known English vernacular dramatist. Fulgens and Lucrece (c.1497), whose heroine must choose between two suitors, is the earliest known secular English play. The other play of Medwall is titled Nature. He stayed at the court of Cardinal Morton, Chancellor in the time of Henry VII. The other work of Medwall's that is extant is Nature. It is without d...

the first known English vernacular dramatist. Fulgens and Lucrece (c.1497), whose heroine must choose between two suitors, is the earliest known secular English play. The other play of Medwall is titled Nature. He stayed at the court of Cardinal Morton, Chancellor in the time of Henry VII. The other work of Medwall's that is extant is Nature. It is without date, place, or printer's name, but was printed by William Rastell. Nature was produced before Morton in Henry VII's reign; John Bale states that it was translated into Latin.

an Ottoman historian. Silahdar Findiklili Mehmed Agha wrote historical chronicles such as "Zeyl-i Fezleke" ("Postscript to the Fezleke," the Fezleke being an earlier work by the historian Kâtip Çelebi), which is today commonly known as Silahdar Tarihi (The History of Sword-Bearer). A second volume of his work was entitled Nusretname (The Book of Victories)...

an Ottoman historian. Silahdar Findiklili Mehmed Agha wrote historical chronicles such as "Zeyl-i Fezleke" ("Postscript to the Fezleke," the Fezleke being an earlier work by the historian Kâtip Çelebi), which is today commonly known as Silahdar Tarihi (The History of Sword-Bearer). A second volume of his work was entitled Nusretname (The Book of Victories). These together recorded the events which occurred prior to and during his lifetime.

a Norwegian magazine and newspaper editor. He studied mineralogy for a short time before founding the satirical magazine Krydseren together with Gudbrand Andreas Berg, Jakob Thomas Rørdam and Claudius Schive in 1849. Hartvig Lassen, Anton Rosing, Halvor Bentsen, Hans Brun and especially Ole Richter were also part of the milieu around the magazine. Norway's ...

a Norwegian magazine and newspaper editor. He studied mineralogy for a short time before founding the satirical magazine Krydseren together with Gudbrand Andreas Berg, Jakob Thomas Rørdam and Claudius Schive in 1849. Hartvig Lassen, Anton Rosing, Halvor Bentsen, Hans Brun and especially Ole Richter were also part of the milieu around the magazine. Norway's first satirical magazine, it was first issued fortnightly, but then weekly and later twice a week. Meidell was the sole editor-in-chief from 1851. Among his contributions as a writer, he is remembered for the song Oleanna.

a German philosopher and historian, born in Warstade. He supported the polygenist theory of human origins. He was a member of the Göttingen School of History. Meiners wrote that the noblest race was the Celts, and they were able to conquer various parts of the world, were more sensitive to heat and cold and their delicacy is shown by the way they are select...

a German philosopher and historian, born in Warstade. He supported the polygenist theory of human origins. He was a member of the Göttingen School of History. Meiners wrote that the noblest race was the Celts, and they were able to conquer various parts of the world, were more sensitive to heat and cold and their delicacy is shown by the way they are selective about what they eat. Meiners claimed Slavs are an inferior race, "less sensitive and content with eating rough food”, he described stories of Slavs eating poisonous fungi without coming to any harm.

a German reformer, collaborator with Martin Luther, the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation, intellectual leader of the Lutheran Reformation, and an influential designer of educational systems. He stands next to Luther and Calvin as a refor...

a German reformer, collaborator with Martin Luther, the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation, intellectual leader of the Lutheran Reformation, and an influential designer of educational systems. He stands next to Luther and Calvin as a reformer, theologian, and molder of Protestantism. His first publications were an edition of Terence (1516) and a Greek grammar (1518), as well as a preface to Reuchlin's Epistolae clarorum virorum (1514).

a French dramatist. Mélesville initially had success at the bar and as a magistrate. He left these jobs in 1814 to dedicate himself to the theatre (though he had first gained praise in that area in 1811 for his comedy l’Oncle rival). Out of consideration for his father's position, he wrote under the pseudonym Mélesville, by which he is still known. He wr...

a French dramatist. Mélesville initially had success at the bar and as a magistrate. He left these jobs in 1814 to dedicate himself to the theatre (though he had first gained praise in that area in 1811 for his comedy l’Oncle rival). Out of consideration for his father's position, he wrote under the pseudonym Mélesville, by which he is still known. He wrote in all genres - dramas, melodramas, comedies, vaudevilles, opera librettos - and is the sole or collaborative author of more than 340 plays.

a Scottish poet. In 1603 she became the earliest known Scottish woman writer to see her work in print, when the Edinburgh publisher Robert Charteris issued the first edition of Ane Godlie Dreame, a Calvinist dream-vision poem. There are also twelve letters, eleven of them holographs. Melville was an active member of the presbyterian resistance to the ecclesi...

a Scottish poet. In 1603 she became the earliest known Scottish woman writer to see her work in print, when the Edinburgh publisher Robert Charteris issued the first edition of Ane Godlie Dreame, a Calvinist dream-vision poem. There are also twelve letters, eleven of them holographs. Melville was an active member of the presbyterian resistance to the ecclesiastical policies of both James VI and Charles I.

an American novelist, short story writer, and poet of the American Renaissance period. His best known works include Typee (1846), a romantic account of his experiences in Polynesian life, and his whaling novel Moby-Dick (1851). His work was almost forgotten during his last thirty years. His writing draws on his experience at sea as a common sailor, explorati...

an American novelist, short story writer, and poet of the American Renaissance period. His best known works include Typee (1846), a romantic account of his experiences in Polynesian life, and his whaling novel Moby-Dick (1851). His work was almost forgotten during his last thirty years. His writing draws on his experience at sea as a common sailor, exploration of literature and philosophy, and engagement in the contradictions of American society in a period of rapid change.

a French scholar. Illness caused him to abandon the legal profession for the church. He became prior of Montdidier without taking holy orders, and lived for some years in the household of Cardinal de Retz (then coadjutor to the Archbishop of Paris), where he had leisure for literary pursuits. In 1664 he published at London an edition of the Lives of Eminent ...

a French scholar. Illness caused him to abandon the legal profession for the church. He became prior of Montdidier without taking holy orders, and lived for some years in the household of Cardinal de Retz (then coadjutor to the Archbishop of Paris), where he had leisure for literary pursuits. In 1664 he published at London an edition of the Lives of Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes Laertius that contains an unedited anonymous life of Aristotle.

a French man of letters also known for his early discoveries on collodion.He was born in Paris. His versatile genius occupied itself in turn with chemistry, poetry, painting and history. In 1843 he published, under the pseudonym of L. de Senneville, a translation of Promethee delivri. Turning to chemistry, he discovered collodion in 1846, but its value was n...

a French man of letters also known for his early discoveries on collodion.He was born in Paris. His versatile genius occupied itself in turn with chemistry, poetry, painting and history. In 1843 he published, under the pseudonym of L. de Senneville, a translation of Promethee delivri. Turning to chemistry, he discovered collodion in 1846, but its value was not recognized at the time; and its application later to surgery and photography brought him no advantage. Ménard was a socialist, always in advance of the reform movements of his time. After 1848 he was condemned to imprisonment for his Prologue d'une révolution.

a German Jewish philosopher to whose ideas the Haskalah, the 'Jewish enlightenment' of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, is indebted. It was after the breakdown of his health that Mendelssohn decided to "dedicate the remains of my strength for the benefit of my children or a goodly portion of my nation"—which he did by trying to bring the Jews close...

a German Jewish philosopher to whose ideas the Haskalah, the 'Jewish enlightenment' of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, is indebted. It was after the breakdown of his health that Mendelssohn decided to "dedicate the remains of my strength for the benefit of my children or a goodly portion of my nation"—which he did by trying to bring the Jews closer to "culture, from which my nation, alas! is kept in such a distance, that one might well despair of ever overcoming it". One of the means of doing this was by "giving them a better translation of the holy books than they previously had". To this end Mendelssohn undertook his German translation of the Pentateuch and other parts of the Bible. This work was called the Bi'ur (the explanation) (1783) and also contained a commentary, only that on Exodus having been written by Mendelssohn himself.

a Spanish military commander, a diplomat and a writer on military history and politics. Many of Mendoza's dispatches to Madrid were first deciphered only in the Simancas archives by De Lamar Jensen; they revealed for the first time Mendoza's role in organizing and coordinating the Paris riots led by the duc de Guise, known as the Day of the Barricades (12 Ma...

a Spanish military commander, a diplomat and a writer on military history and politics. Many of Mendoza's dispatches to Madrid were first deciphered only in the Simancas archives by De Lamar Jensen; they revealed for the first time Mendoza's role in organizing and coordinating the Paris riots led by the duc de Guise, known as the Day of the Barricades (12 May 1588), presented as a spontaneous rising of the people and timed to coincide with the sailing of the Spanish Armada. Among Mendoza's public writings is a famous account of the war in the Low Countries entitled Comentario de lo sucecido en los Paises Bajos desde el año 1567 hasta el de 1577. Bernardino also published a book on the art of warfare under the title Theórica y práctica de la guerra and a Spanish translation of the Politicorum sive civilis doctrinae libri sex of the Flemish philosopher Justus Lipsius.

a Spanish novelist, poet, diplomat and historian, governor of Granada. He acted for some time as military governor of Siena, represented Spain diplomatically at the Council of Trent, and in 1547 was nominated special plenipotentiary at Rome, where he remained till 1554. His Guerra de Granada (concerning the 1568 Morisco Revolt in the Alpujarras) was publishe...

a Spanish novelist, poet, diplomat and historian, governor of Granada. He acted for some time as military governor of Siena, represented Spain diplomatically at the Council of Trent, and in 1547 was nominated special plenipotentiary at Rome, where he remained till 1554. His Guerra de Granada (concerning the 1568 Morisco Revolt in the Alpujarras) was published in Madrid in 1610 and in Lisbon by Luis Tribaldos de Toledo in 1627; the delay was doubtless due to Mendoza's severe criticism of contemporaries who survived him. A complete edition was not published until 1730.

the author of the first Western history of China to publish Chinese characters for Western delectation. Published by him in 1586, Historia de las cosas más notables, ritos y costumbres del gran reyno de la China (The History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China and the Situation Thereof) is an account of observations several Spanish travelers in ...

the author of the first Western history of China to publish Chinese characters for Western delectation. Published by him in 1586, Historia de las cosas más notables, ritos y costumbres del gran reyno de la China (The History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China and the Situation Thereof) is an account of observations several Spanish travelers in China. An English translation by Robert Parke appeared in 1588 and was reprinted by the Hakluyt Society in two volumes, edited by Sir George T. Staunton, Bart. (London, 1853–54).

a French dramatist and writer. Mercier began his literary career by writing heroic epistles. He early came to the conclusion that Nicolas Boileau-Despreaux and more

a French dramatist and writer. Mercier began his literary career by writing heroic epistles. He early came to the conclusion that Nicolas Boileau-Despreaux and Jean Racine had ruined the French language and that the true poet wrote in prose. He wrote plays, pamphlets, and novels and published prodigiously. Mercier often recycled passages from one work to another and expanded on essays he had already written. Mercier's keen observations on his surroundings and the journalistic feel of his writing meant that his work remained riveting despite the nature of its composition.

a French writer and translator. He is best known for his satirical and licentious books. As author and editor, his name remained attached to stories and erotic poems such as The Evenings convent or a novitiate of love and the Breviary of pretty women, for a public libertine . Mercier Compiègne however never made ??fortune: the Convention carried him on the ...

a French writer and translator. He is best known for his satirical and licentious books. As author and editor, his name remained attached to stories and erotic poems such as The Evenings convent or a novitiate of love and the Breviary of pretty women, for a public libertine . Mercier Compiègne however never made ??fortune: the Convention carried him on the list of letters from people to whom it granted relief. Before dying at the age of 37, he founded in 1800 a monthly magazine, Literary Ferret.

a French abbot and librarian. He entered in 1749 the Congregation of Canons Regular of St. Genevieve, and after a year of trial, took her vows. He was immediately sent by his superiors to the Abbey Chatrices in Champagne. He collaborated in Journal of Trévoux of which he was director from October 1764 to June 1766, to the literary year in the Journal of Bou...

a French abbot and librarian. He entered in 1749 the Congregation of Canons Regular of St. Genevieve, and after a year of trial, took her vows. He was immediately sent by his superiors to the Abbey Chatrices in Champagne. He collaborated in Journal of Trévoux of which he was director from October 1764 to June 1766, to the literary year in the Journal of Bouillon, the Journal des Savants and encyclopedic Store. He was one of the principal writers (with François-Louis Claude Marin , Father Jean Augustine Capperonnier and Father PJ Boudot ) of the Library of French theater (1768, 3 vols. 12mo) published under the direction of Louis César de La Baume Le Blanc, Duc de La Valliere.

an Italian impresario and librettist, best known as the manager of the La Scala Milan opera house between 1829 and 1850, and for his support for the young Giuseppe Verdi. Merelli was born in Bergamo and studied composition there with Simon Mayr. He moved to Mila...

an Italian impresario and librettist, best known as the manager of the La Scala Milan opera house between 1829 and 1850, and for his support for the young Giuseppe Verdi. Merelli was born in Bergamo and studied composition there with Simon Mayr. He moved to Milan around 1812 and worked there as a theatrical agent, at the same time writing a number of librettos for Mayr, Gaetano Donizetti, Nicola Vaccai and other composers. He set up his own agency in 1826 and managed seasons in Varese, Como and Cremona between 1830 and 1835, and was joint lessee (with Carlo Balochino) of the Theater am Kärntnertor in Vienna from 1836 to 1848.

a French writer, journalist, novelist, poet, playwright and librettist. An ardent romanticist, he collaborated with Auguste Barthélemy in many of his satires and wrote a great number of stories, now forgotten. Nowadays he is perhaps best remembered as the co-librettist of the original version in French of more

a French writer, journalist, novelist, poet, playwright and librettist. An ardent romanticist, he collaborated with Auguste Barthélemy in many of his satires and wrote a great number of stories, now forgotten. Nowadays he is perhaps best remembered as the co-librettist of the original version in French of Giuseppe Verdi's Don Carlos, which premiered in Paris in March 1867. Also, he was the author of the play La Bataille de Toulouse which Verdi had earlier adapted for his opera La battaglia di Legnano in January 1849.

the author of a multi-volume Turkish-to-Latin dictionary and grammar of the Turkish language, first published in 1680, which was ground-breaking in its comprehensiveness at the time, and for historians today it is a valuable reference for the Turkish language of the time. Mesgnien-Meninski was born in Lorraine (duchy) in today's northeastern France. He studi...

the author of a multi-volume Turkish-to-Latin dictionary and grammar of the Turkish language, first published in 1680, which was ground-breaking in its comprehensiveness at the time, and for historians today it is a valuable reference for the Turkish language of the time. Mesgnien-Meninski was born in Lorraine (duchy) in today's northeastern France. He studied in Rome, where one of his teachers was a theoretical linguist, logician, and Jesuit, Giovanni Battista Giattini.

a French Catholic priest (abbé) who was discovered, upon his death, to have written a book-length philosophical essay promoting atheism. Described by the author as his "testament" to his parishioners, the text denounces all religion. When Meslier died, there were found in his house three copies of a 633-page octavo manuscript in which the village curate den...

a French Catholic priest (abbé) who was discovered, upon his death, to have written a book-length philosophical essay promoting atheism. Described by the author as his "testament" to his parishioners, the text denounces all religion. When Meslier died, there were found in his house three copies of a 633-page octavo manuscript in which the village curate denounces organized religion as "but a castle in the air" and theology as "but ignorance of natural causes reduced to a system".

a German physician with an interest in astronomy, who theorised that there was a natural energetic transference that occurred between all animated and inanimate objects that he called animal magnetism, sometimes later referred to as mesmerism. The theory attracted a wide following between about 1780 and 1850, and continued to have some influence until the en...

a German physician with an interest in astronomy, who theorised that there was a natural energetic transference that occurred between all animated and inanimate objects that he called animal magnetism, sometimes later referred to as mesmerism. The theory attracted a wide following between about 1780 and 1850, and continued to have some influence until the end of the century. In 1843 the Scottish physician James Braid proposed the term hypnosis for a technique derived from animal magnetism; today this is the usual meaning of mesmerism.

a French magistrate, intendant of Soissons, and Président à mortier of the Parliament of Paris. The descendant of a family from Béarn, Mesmes was count of Avaux, viscount of Neufchâtel-sur-Aisne, Lord of Moissy-Cramayel, provost and master of ceremonies of the Ordre des Chevaliers du Saint-Esprit from 1671 to 1684. He participated in the signing of the T...

a French magistrate, intendant of Soissons, and Président à mortier of the Parliament of Paris. The descendant of a family from Béarn, Mesmes was count of Avaux, viscount of Neufchâtel-sur-Aisne, Lord of Moissy-Cramayel, provost and master of ceremonies of the Ordre des Chevaliers du Saint-Esprit from 1671 to 1684. He participated in the signing of the Treaty of Nijmegen. He was a learned man, who possessed a large library, he traveled to Italy and was the second member elected to occupy seat 4 of the Académie française in 1676.

a Swedish enfant terrible and Rikshistoriograf who was condemned to death and executed under the reign of Christina, Queen of Sweden. His father was sentenced to death in July 1616, but the king changed the sentence to prison, probably for life. Messenius wrote during his imprisonment Scandia illustrata, a history of the Nordic countries in 14 volumes, which...

a Swedish enfant terrible and Rikshistoriograf who was condemned to death and executed under the reign of Christina, Queen of Sweden. His father was sentenced to death in July 1616, but the king changed the sentence to prison, probably for life. Messenius wrote during his imprisonment Scandia illustrata, a history of the Nordic countries in 14 volumes, which treated Sweden's history from the deluge to Messenius' own time.

a Swedish historian, dramatist and university professor. In Danzig, in 1605, his brethren among the Jesuits had informed the Swedish King Charles IX that Johannes had written a mocking poem on him. In order to convince everybody of his contempt for the Jesuits, he published two works. One was shorter and named Detecto Fraudis Jesuiticæ, in 1610, and a longe...

a Swedish historian, dramatist and university professor. In Danzig, in 1605, his brethren among the Jesuits had informed the Swedish King Charles IX that Johannes had written a mocking poem on him. In order to convince everybody of his contempt for the Jesuits, he published two works. One was shorter and named Detecto Fraudis Jesuiticæ, in 1610, and a longer in Swedish named Retorsion och genswars skrifft emoot then lögn och skamlig dicht, which had already been published in German in 1609.

a monk of the Carthusian house of Mount Grace Priory in Yorkshire in the second half of the fifteenth century. He entered Mount Grace aged about 25, seemingly spending the rest of his life at that same house, since his writings give no indication that he was ever resident in another house of the Order. He is remembered for his writings - some original, and s...

a monk of the Carthusian house of Mount Grace Priory in Yorkshire in the second half of the fifteenth century. He entered Mount Grace aged about 25, seemingly spending the rest of his life at that same house, since his writings give no indication that he was ever resident in another house of the Order. He is remembered for his writings - some original, and some translations. He wrote primarily for his fellow Carthusians, and so his writings are in Latin except for a short Middle English Letter.